Current assessment of Ηemospermia

Introduction/Aim: Hemospermia is defined as the presence of red blood cells in the semen. Although hemospermia is a rare sign, its presence is annoying and worrisome for patients. In addition, it is often overlooked by healthcare professionals due to its short duration and to its presumably benign origin. Currently, there are no set guidelines regarding the evaluation of hemospermia that would allow a definitive diagnosis, and only limited evidence is available. The aim of this review is to investigate the current trends on the assessment and manage- ment of hemospermia. Materials and Methods: The present review was based on a search in the relevant Greek and international bibliography. The PubMed database was searched for bibliographic data. The keywords used were "hemospermia" in combination with "etiology" and "treatment". Search was done by title, abstract or keywords. Results: The actual incidence of hemospermia is unknown; however, it appears to be more common in men under the age of 40. It is usually a sign of short duration and is self-limited; hence, it often does not require further evaluation or treatment. When evaluated in men younger than 40 without risk factors, hemospermia is usually associated with benign causes and in the majority of cases responds well to treatment. In patients with risk factors and/or associated symptoms, hemospermia usually recurs and may not respond to treatment. In men over 40 years of age with persistent or recurrent hemospermia, systemic diseases and malignant conditions associated with hematospermia may be present. In rare cases hemospermia may be the only symptom of uncommon diseases. Conclusions: Hemospermia has been linked with a variety of conditions. in-depth investigation may be intricate, and it should be performed in persistent or recurrent cases before definitive diagnosis.